An Analysis on the Definition of motivation

An Analysis on the Definition of motiveThe term motive is derived from the Latin word for movement (m everywheree), convey to move, push or deflect to act for satisfying a need (Butkus Green, 1999) . Atkinson (1964) defines cause as the coetaneous influence on steerage, vigor, and persistence of action whereas Vroom (1964) defines it as a abut governing choice do by individualsamong alternative forms of involuntary activity.Additionally, indigence is concerned with the alter by reversal outs that influence hoi polloi to be switch in certain(prenominal) guidances. The lead components of motivation as listed by Arnold et al (1991) atomic number 18direction what a person is returning to do movement how hard a person is tryingpersistence how long a person keeps on trying.Moreover, motivation is besides defined as a plume of name beliefs and emotions that influence and direct doings (Wentzel, 1999 see also Green, Martin, Marsh, 2007 Martin, 2007, 2008a, 2008 b, in press). They calculate that relationships affect come uponment motivation by forthwith influencing motivations constituent beliefs and emotions. bothport (1954) referred ultimo actions that led to positively charged turn outcomes would tend to be repeated, whereas past actions that led to shun outcomes would tend to diminish. Skinner (1953) and another(prenominal)s argued that, over metre, exclusives learn contingent relationships surrounded by actions and their consequences and that these contingencies hold future behavior. Reinforcement presents continue to thrive today as explanatory vehicles for understanding turn over motivation and mull over consummation, as well as in the civiliseplace in various performance management programs (Komaki, 2003).2.1 TYPES OF motifMotivation at act as drop take place in two ways. First, stack can motivate themselves by seeking, finding and carrying out work that satisfies their needs or leads them to expect that their g oals testament be achieved. Secondly, tidy sum can be move by management by means of very much(prenominal) methods as pay, praise, etc. in that keep an eye on ar two types of motivation as originally identified by Herzberg et al (1957)2.1.1 built-in motivation the natural factors that influence people to be collapse in a particular way. These factors hold responsibility, autonomy, scope to use and break up skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement.Intrinsic motivation as a predictor of performance is strongly support by research in sports (Callahan et al., 2003 ) and commandal settings (Lin et al.,2003 Vansteenkiste et al.,2004 Wang and Guthrie, 2004). Moreover, a few studies pull in found a positive relationship betwixt intrinsic motivation and work performance in work organizations cited by Gagne and Deci (2005).2.1.2 in inseparable motivation what is done to or for people to motivate them? This take ons rewards, s uch(prenominal) as join on pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can control an immediate and mightinessful effect, but it will not necessarily last long.2.2 Evolution of motivationBy the 1950s, near(prenominal) sassy patterns of work motivation emerged, which collectively have been referred to as content theories, since their headway aim was to identify factors associated with motivation which includes Maslows (1954) Needs theory, which pop the questions that, as individuals develop, they work their way up a hierarchy ground on the runlment of a series of prioritized needs, including physiologic, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and self-fruition. Alderfer (1972) later adapted this model to encompass rightful(prenominal) three needs existence, relatedness, and ripenth.A second need theory of the equal era, front introduced by Murray (1938) but more fully developed by McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the concept of a hierarchy and foc employ instead on the motivational potency of an array of distinct and clearly defined needs, including achievement, affiliation, power, and autonomy. McClelland argued that, at any given time, individuals possess several often competing needs that coif to motivate behavior when activated. This contrasts with Maslows notion of a steady progression over time up a hypothetical hierarchy as individuals grow and mature. Herzberg (1966 Herzberg, Mausner, Snyderman, 1959) sought to understand how work activities and the nature of ones job influence motivation and performance.In his motivation-hygiene theory, Herzberg argued that work motivation is by and large influenced by the limit to which a job is intrinsically challenging and provides opportunities for cognition and reinforcement. Herzberg saw the context skirt a job (hygiene factors) as being far more temporary in terms of leading to delight and future motiva tion. Herzberg deserves credit for introducing the eye socket to the role of job design as a key factor in work motivation and job attitudes. In subsequent work, Hackman and Oldham (1976) and others have extended this line of research as it relates to work design, motivation, and job performance, period others, including Deci (1975 Ryan Deci, 2000), have articulated theories focusing specifically on task based intrinsic versus extrinsic factors in motivation (e.g. self-determination theory).2.3 Models of motivation in that location ar four well-established models of motivation(1) the rational-economic(2) the social(3) the self-actualizing and(4) the complex models.The first three of these can be regarded as content models of motivation. Content theories of motivation try to explain the factors within persons which motivate them. The complex model introduces roughly aspects of the mental process theory of motivation.2.3.1 The rational-economic modelThis suggests that people are actuate primarily by economic self-interest, and will act to maximize their suffer financial and framework rewards (F.W Taylor, 1947). spates motivation then can be controlled largely by oblation or withholding financial rewards. Underlying this model are the assumptions that people are passive, are inclined to assert less quite a than more effort, are unwilling to take responsibility, and are interested in work for what they can get out of it financially.2.3.2 The social modelThe work of Elton mayo is famously known as Hawthorne Experiments. This model can be summarized in the following terms (Mayo, 1975)People at work are motivated primarily by social needs, such as the need for familiarity and acceptance, and their sense of identity is formed through relationships with other people.As a result of increased mechanization and rationalization, work has lost some of its meaning, and people increasingly seek meaning in social relationships at work.People are more responsive t o the pressures of their peer groups at work than to management controls and incentives.People respond when management meets their needs for belonging, acceptance and sense of identity.2.3.3 The self-actualizing modelMaslow (1970) developed the idea of self-actualization needs. According to him self-actualization is the need a person has to fulfil his or her capabilities and potential.The model further indicates that the following motivate people mankind needs fall into a hierarchy from the virtually basic physiological needs to needs for self-actualization (Maslow, 1970). As the basic needs are met, nada is released for the delight of higher needs. Everyone seeks a sense of meaning and accomplishment in their work (see Figure 1). Findikci (2006) tell that an individuals level of motivation is dependent on the material and social benefits he/she gains from the institution they work in. Individuals like to elaborate autonomy and independence and to develop skills. People are pr imarily self-motivated and self-controlled. on that point is no inherent conflict amidst self-actualization and more effective organisational performance. People are happy to integrate their goals with those of the organization.Figure 1 Maslows hierarchy of NeedsSource Abraham H. Maslow Towards a Psychology of Being, D. Van Nostrand Company, 19682.3.4 The complex modelSchein (1980) argues that the problem with each of the preceding models of human behaviour is their claim to universality and generality. Schein, instead, sees human nature as complex, with human needs and motivations varying consort to the different circumstances people face, their life fuck, expectations and age. People are motivated to work when they believe that they can get what they want from their jobs. This might include the satisfaction of safety needs, the excitement of doing challenging work, or the ability to set and achieve goals. Schein also introduces the concept of a psychological contract which is fundamentally a set of expectations on two sides and where a match is measurable if efforts to ameliorate motivation are likely to be effective.2.4 Cognitive theoryOn the other hand, perhaps best known of the cognitive theories is anticipation theory.Expectancy theory derives from the early work of Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1959), who saw behavior as purposeful, goal order, and largely based on conscious intentions. Vroom (1964) presented the first systematic formulation of expectancy theory as it related to the workplace. He argued that employees tend to rationally evaluate various on-the-job work behaviors (e.g., work harder) and then choose those behaviors they believe will lead to their most cute work-related rewards and outcomes (e.g., a promotion).On the other hand, Porter and Lawler (1968) expanded Vrooms initial work to recognize the role of individual differences (e.g., employee abilities and skills) and role clarity in linking job effort to actual job performance . They also clarified the relationship between performance and subsequent satisfaction, lean that this relationship is mediated by the extent and note of the rewards employees develop in exchange for good job performance. That is, if winner performance in the past failed to lead to superior rewards, future employee effort may suffer as incentives and the reward system lose credibleness in the employees eyes.Since its initial publication, a number of scholars have worked to extend or further refine the basic cognitive expectancy framework to shine emerging research findings and new theoretical organic evolutions (e.g., Kanfer, 1990 Mitchell, 1997). For example, expectancy theory has been used to study forms of work behavior other than job performance, including employee absenteeism, turnover, and organizational citizenship behavior (Mobley, 1977 Mowday, Porter, Steers, 1982 Organ, 1988 Porter Steers, 1973 Steers Rhodes, 1978). inquiryers have also linked group expectations and social influences to individual work motivation decisions (Porter, Lawler, Hackman, 1975). Finally, basic expectancy principles have been incorporated into several emerging models of cross-cultural influences on work motivation and job performance (Bhagat McQuaid, 1982 Earley, 1997 Steers Sanchez-Runde, 2001 Triandis, 1995).In addition to expectancy theory, another cognitive theory of work motivation has been the Equity theory. Adams (1963) introduced equity theory to explain how employees respond both cognitively and behaviorally to perceived unfairness in the workplace (Mowday Colwell, 2003, and Weick, Bougon, Maruyama, 1976). Stajkovic and Luthans (1998, 2003) found substantial support for the role of self-efficacy in determining work-related performance, curiously as moderated by task complexity and locus of control.2.5 Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theoryHerzberg et al. (1957) argued that satisers or motivators are most related to self-actualization needs. Motivators include the work itself, recognition, advancement and responsibility. Motivators are intrinsic factors directly related to the job and largely internal to the individual. Dissatisers or hygiene factors relate to Maslows lower level needs. These include company policy and administration, salary, working conditions and social relations. Hygienes are extrinsic factors, which the organization largely determines and improvement in these dissatisers would dispatch dissatisfaction, but would not elicit positive motivation. Positive motivation comes entirely from accomplishing a meaningful and challenging task.Herzberg devised his theory on the question What do people want from their jobs? Later, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the alike(p) does not lead to motivation. However, their non presence leads to demotivation. In similar manner thither are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.Hertzbergs study is recognized to have some limitations. The results obtained from his study by professed(prenominal) workers may not be applicable to all groups. Moreover, he uses satisfaction and motivation as interchangeable, and there is an imbed assumption that increased satisfaction leads to increased motivation and this is not always the case. Nevertheless, the distinction between satisers and dissatisers is useful, and the recognition that some factors append to positive motivation while others can that minimize dissatisfaction is important.2.5.1 Reservations roughly Herzbergs theoryHerzbergs two-factor model has been criticized because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. The Herzberg theory continues to thrive partly because for the layman it is easy to understand and seems to be based on real-life rather than academic abstraction, and partly because it fits in well with the highly respected ideas of Maslow (1954) and McGregor (1960) in its emphasis on the positive value of the intrinsic motivating factors.2.6 pecuniary rewardsLecturers are appointed to a single salary scale. Their position on that scale is determined by their qualifications and pass, and possibly previous salary, at the time of their appointment. Progression through the scale is by annual increments. In some institutions extra increments may be awarded for special achievements. In some exposed areas, notably the professional disciplines, it is possible for academic staff to earn additional income by confederacy in out-of-door, income-generating activities, but arrangements surrounding these opportunities vary between institutions. Deeprose (1994) examined that the effective reward system improve employee motivation and in creases employee productivity which contribute to better enhanced organizational performance.2.7 The culture of principle and higher upbringingHigher education is by culture a developmental environment. All staff have a signicant role as lecturers, and are subject to the person-to-person pressure to perform that is inherent in this concussion. intimately staff gain gratification from working with students and witnessing the achievement and development of those students. This is associated with having a professional pride in their work. It is important for them to be accepted by the students when they work as a leader and facilitator. Frustration may develop from dissatisers which prevent lecturers from doing a good job towards note education, including poor timetable organization, pathetic maintenance of educational equipment, or too many assorted demands on their time. A key task of the teacher is to ensure the motivation of students (Deniz et al., 2006). in one case achie ved this links directly to the teachers own motivation level.2.8 Diversity of lecturer experience and rolesIt is easy to view the lecturer in higher education as a body, and to seek to introduce motivation and rewards for the body as a whole. It is important to recognize that lecturers are motivated by different factors, depending on their length of service in higher education, their other work experience, their age, their aspirations with respect to career development and the relative priorities which they attach to achievement and social factors, such as their individualised life and being accepted as a team member.2.9 Strategies for motivationIn an environment where there is already a strong culture of tonus education, strategies of motivation to support self actualization and growth are strong contenders. These include the following2.9.1 Opportunities for personal developmentIt includesexperience in instruction different groups of studentsvisiting students on work placementre search and publishing activitiesconsultancystudy for higher gradesattendance at conferences and workshopsmanagement/team leadership experiencetraining in teaching and/or management skills.2.9.2 Managing dissatisersThe manager has a signicant role in eliminating or reducing dissatisers. This is often achieved through negotiation and allocation of resources. This must(prenominal) clearly be achieved within organizational constraints, and where it is not possible to transmute the dissatisers, managers should seek to eliminate their effects and communicate the constraints. For example, currently all backing to higher education institutions is based on student numbers. Lecturers need to respect that stafng resources in specic subject areas are determined by such criteria and not by the number of teaching or contact hours. Communication is necessary to ensure that staff expectations change with the changes in the environment.2.9.3 The nancial placeThe usual strategies for nancial m otivation are performance-related pay and promotion. such(prenominal) strategies are not commonly within the control of the individual head of department and will be controlled by institutional norms and Funding Council initiatives. Thus, when the opportunity arises, these strategies can be used by the individual manager to encourage motivation, but their intermittent and uncontrollable nature presents a lot of problems.2.10 Motivation through RewardsManagers have found that rewards play a significant role in motivating employees to work harder and longer. This section, therefore, attempts to identify the numerous types for rewards that can be administered by managers.There are two types of rewards Extrinsic and Intrinsic.Extrinsic rewards are external outcomes apt(p) to someone by others, such as cash, employee benefits, promotions, recognition, status symbols, and praise. In other words, this kind of reward is provided by another person or by organizational system to individual s.In contrast, intrinsic reward derives internally from individuals and can be experienced through their work, such as the feelings of competency, sense of accomplishment, personal development and self-esteem. The importance of being self-administered offers great advantages and power of motivating from within.homework and developmentTraining is the systematic modification of behavior through encyclopedism which occurs as a result of education, instruction, development and planned experience. Gong et al.(1998) stated that quality starts and improves with training. Hence, training acts as an intrinsic motivator, develops the competences of employees and improves their performance. Garvin (1987) examined the impact of training on performance and found that in manufacturing units, quality oriented and job-specific training helps to achieve higher levels of quality in outputs and productivity.2.11 Definition of Quality pedagogy notwithstanding the prominence of quality as the motivati ng factor for educational planning, nuzzlees to quality can vary widely. In fact, quality is mostly used in a detached way, assuming consensus both on what the term means and on the desirability of the various educational aims and approaches promoted under the banner of quality. Whether unmistakable or implicit, a vision of educational quality is always embedded within countries policies and programs. The term quality is derived from the latin word qualitas, which means the degree of excellence of a thing (Oxford Dictionary, 2003).Article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states that States are requested to recognize that education should be directed at developing the childs personality and talents, preparing the child for active life as an adult, facts of life respect for basic human rights and developing respect for the childs own cultural and national values and those of others (United Nations, 1989). Therefore, everyone has the right not only to receive educatio n, but also to receive education of high quality.Quality of education has been described as the success with which an institution provides educational environments which enable students efficaciously to achieve worthwhile learning goals including appropriate academic standards (Gordon and Partington, 1993).Nightingale and ONeil (1994) suggest that in looking for a meaningful definition of quality in learning among higher education, education should be looked as a transformative process involving a change in roles of the student and the teacher, and geared to an assumption of quality being part of a continuous improvement process. Teaching fetch other studies of the effects of teacher on student learning have found a relationship between teachers effectiveness and their years of experience (Hammond, 2000).2.12 Visions of quality for educationHarvey (1995) provides a useful framework for thinking about quality by outlining five goals for education that define the vision of quality w ithin individual systems. procreation systems vary in emphasizing a single vision or, more commonly, a mixture of the five goals upbringing quality as exceptionalityEducation quality as consistencyEducation quality as fitness-for-purposeEducation quality as value for moneyEducation quality as transformative potential (Kubow and Fossum 2003).2.13 Approaches to quality educationThe 2005 EFA observe Report The Quality Imperative points out that promise about the objectives and aims of education will frame any discussion of quality and that such agreement embodies moral, political, and epistemological issues that are frequently invisible or ignored (UNESCO 2004, p. 37). The taradiddle further emphasizes that different notions of quality are associated with different educational traditions and approaches2.13.1 The human-centred approachIt is one of the precursors of constructivism, focuses on learners constructing their own meanings and integrating theory and put as a basis for so cial action. Quality within this tradition is interpreted as the extent to which learners translate learning into social action.2.13.2 The behaviorist approachIt means heading in another direction and assumes that students must be led and their behavior controlled to specific ends, with quality measured in precise, incremental learning terms.2.13.3 Critical approachesOn the other hand, focus on inequality in access to and outcomes of education and on educations role in legitimising and reproducing existing social structures. Quality education within this tradition is seen as prompting social change, encouraging critical analysis of social power relations, and ensuring that learners participate actively in the design of their learning experience.2.13.4 Indigenous approachesThis approach to quality defy mainstream education imported from the centers of power, assure relevance to local anaesthetic content, and include the knowledge of the whole community (UNESCO 2004, pp. 32-35).Wha tever the broader vision of quality, most countries policies define two key elements as the basis of quality students cognitive development and social/creative/ emotional development. (UNESCO 2004, p.29).Sculleys (1988) prediction about the planetary renaissance of higher education is reassuring since he sees every person and every culture, as well as every countrys educational institutions, having much to teach and much to learn.2.14 Quality Assurance in Tertiary EducationThe quality bureau in tertiary education has been described by Bogue and Saunders (1992) as a process and practice primarily concerned with conformance to mission specications and goal achievement within the publicly accepted standards of righteousness and integrity.Frazer (1992), who has classied prevailing quality assurance systems, on the basis of their willpower and funding, into university-owned, governmental and non-governmental systems, adopted another approach. From this perspective, ownership is seen to inuence the level of institutional autonomy fostered, the value placed on academic freedom, the extent of external political control and the extent of faculty commitment to the quality assurance systems (Gaither, 1998).Tertiary institutions are not unlike other organisations. They rely on quality of service to their customers, i.e. students, in order to remain competitive. Quality in tertiary education is not interested only in tangibles such as lecture venues, course materials and the like. It is also heavily dependent on the institutions human resources to provide a good service to its customers (Yeo, 2009). Acosta (2000) states that university teaching usually takes the form of one of three methods the lecture tutorial work and hard-nosed and projects.In order to stimulate involvement in class discussions some lecturers employ formal mechanisms for grading exponentiation (Maznevski, 1996). However, lecturers should explain to students the value of prosecute in a brainstormi ng phase as a stepping nether region towards class discussion. Chong and Farago (1999) claimed that visual images are idea catalysts for discussion in the multicultural classroom and hence a key element in the displacement process toward inclusive instruction, thus making an effort to search for germane(predicate) video-clips to be shown during workshops, tools which are very powerful in triggering class debates.High-quality fundamental interaction and active participation, however, cannot be achieved through good intentions, or mere administrative decree, alone. Good relationships among students and a good rapport between the students and the lecturer are a conditio sine qua non to creating an environment of comfort, trust and mutual respect, in which outspoken discussion, exchange and examination of ideas, as well as active participation are not inhibited by fear (Billingsley, 1999).Tompson and Tompson (1996) observed, the idea that of without rely relationships learning is s tunted nds theoretical support in Maslows model of hierarchy of needs, according to which individuals are unlikely to engage in self-actualization activities, such as challenging intellectual debates and discussions, unless security, social and esteem needs have already been satisfied. They also suggested a number of strategies such as ice-breaking activities, clear communication, non-threatening ambiance etc aimed at facilitating students adjustment and social integration and hence at fostering trusting relationships across differences.2.16 Learning and teaching stylesWhen considering the quality of teaching in higher education, one needs to resist the temptation of seeking easy and single dimensional classifications, rankings and explanations. The notion of quality is not a simple one rather it is problematic, contested and multidimensional and requires examination at institutional, departmental and individual levels (Elton, 1998).It has been argued that many of the factors con tributing to high quality education are related to particular teaching and learning styles. The empirical work of Lammers and tater (2002), who studied the delivery of sessions in a range of academic disciplines in a US university, indicated that lecturers had a role in giving information. trenchant higher education involves the appropriate blend of physical factors such as the course characteristics and classroom arrangement and instructor factors such as ardor, expertness and teaching style. Many students usually value lecturers who are encouraging, constructive and positive and transmit enthusiasm for their subject.Other key style factors which are significant to the complex interactions of higher education are considered to be democratic participation and transformative, collaborative and critical learning that values and encourages diversity (DAndrea and Gosling, 2001).2.17 The student/ lecturer relationshipAndreson (2000) emphasises on the importance of interactions and st resses that students engagement with the subject and the cacoethes and enthusiasm conveyed to them by lecturers. This passion and enthusiasm helps to demonstrate to students that the lecturer cares about them and that there is concern about their intellectual growth. However, there are worries amongst many academics that the increase in student numbers in higher education (Gibbs, 2001), with the ensuant greater use of e-learning and resource-based learning, will adversely affect the student/lecturer relationship. This is because it is considered to be far more difficult to impart enthusiasm and passion through a computer programme than it is with face-to-face contact (Nixon et al., 1998).Andreson (2000) and Nixon et al. (1998) also argue that the nexus between teaching and research is highly influential. Research provides an added dimension to teaching and allows the development of a collaborative relationship between lecturer and students within a learning community. In such a co mmunity the subject is therefore more likely to be well-disposed and transparent to the student.Hill and MacGregor (1998) similarly found that students are greatly back up by those lecturers who are an integral part of their learning experiences and who actively join forces in the learning process. The importance of lecturer/student interaction and how students find lecturers who are easy to be with and who help them to learn is essential. Morton-Cooper and Palmer (1993) argue that students particularly value traits of responsiveness and trustworthiness in their lecturers.On the other hand, Rowland et al. (1998) reject the notion of an automatic synergistic relationship between teaching and research, arguing that they do not necessarily complement each other. They identified a reconceptualisation of the role of academic staff with an increasing separation of research and teaching. This has been largely due to differential funding and an emphasis on research and teaching as two d istinct and unrelated functions. This dichotomy has developed through the financial imperative of achieving the highest possible research assessment exercise lashings and, contrarily the exhortations of staff development and education development units for staff to improve their teaching skills.Elton (1998) regards high teaching quality as quite essential to excellence in higher education. He argues that there has to be change in attitudes amongst certain academics who believe that their main task is to profess their discipline. Such academics consider